NHTSA (2024). Occupant Protection in Passenger Vehicles: 2022 Data (DOT HS 813 573):「Among killed passenger vehicle occupants with known restraint use, 48 percent of those in the front row and 60 percent of those in the second row were unrestrained.」crashstats.nhtsa.dot.gov/Api/Public/ViewPublication/813573
You J 等 (2020). Number of Deaths due to Carbon Monoxide Poisoning by Month and by Place of Death — China, 2018. China CDC Weekly. doi.org/10.46234/ccdcw2020.008
备注
给 B 的原因:烟雾报警器这边只有一项研究,做法是回头比对出事和没出事的家庭,不是随机分组的试验。一氧化碳报警器本身没有降低死亡率的研究。这里的收益是按「中毒死亡集中在冬季、集中在家中」推出来的。
条例原文能逐字核对,但它只说明到期换管是你的义务,不说明换了能少出多少事故。按年限换管能把燃气事故降多少,没找到官方统计数字,所以只给 C 级。上门安检的人要你买他指定的自闭阀、报警器,你可以拒绝,也可以投诉,因为条例第二十条第六项不许燃气公司这样要求。自闭阀和报警器本身是市场监管总局鼓励装的,要装就自己挑合格的产品。闻到燃气味,先关燃气总阀,瓶装气关钢瓶阀门。再开门开窗通风,别开排气扇。电灯、抽油烟机这些电器一律别开也别关,打火机也别碰。然后人撤出去,离开现场再打燃气公司的报警电话。一氧化碳中毒是另一件事,见第 13 节。
Mushroom Poisoning Outbreaks — China, 2025. China CDC Weekly (2026):「In 2025, China CDC investigated 828 mushroom poisoning incidents across 27 provincial-level administrative divisions (PLADs), affecting 2,165 individuals and causing 13 deaths - a case fatality rate of 0.6%, the lowest of the past six years. In total, 138 poisonous mushroom species were identified, including 34 newly recorded in poisoning incidents in China.」「From 2019 to 2024, the annual number of incidents ranged from 276 to 676, and the case fatality rate ranged from 0.87% to 2.86%.」doi.org/10.46234/ccdcw2026.120
Ettehad D 等 (2016). Blood pressure lowering for prevention of cardiovascular disease and death: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(15)01225-8
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Wang L 等 (2021). Prevalence and Treatment of Diabetes in China, 2013-2018. JAMA:「In 2018, among adults with diabetes, 36.7% (95% CI, 34.7%-38.6%) reported being aware of their condition」「These rates did not change significantly from 2013.」doi.org/10.1001/jama.2021.22208
WHO (2025). Road traffic injuries fact sheet:「Drivers using mobile phones are approximately 4 times more likely to be involved in a crash than drivers not using a mobile phone.」「Hands-free phones are not much safer than hand-held phone sets.」www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/road-traffic-injuries
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Spiegel CN, Lindaman FC (1977). Children can't fly: a program to prevent childhood morbidity and mortality from window falls. American Journal of Public Health:「Significant reduction in falls resulted, particularly in the Bronx, where reported falls declined 50 percent from 1973 to 1975」,1976 年纽约市卫生法典修订「to require that landlords provide window guards in apartments where children ten years old and younger reside」. doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.67.12.1143
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Cummings P 等 (2011). Association between wearing a personal floatation device and death by drowning among recreational boaters. Injury Prevention. doi.org/10.1136/ip.2010.028688
Li Z 等 (2023). Unintentional Drowning Mortality Among Individuals Under Age 20 — China, 2013–2021. China CDC Weekly:「in China, it is deemed the primary cause of death for children between the ages of 1 and 14. According to 2021 data, the rate of unintentional drowning in this age group is 3.23 per 100,000, surpassing road traffic injuries, the second leading cause of fatalities, by 0.99 per 100,000.」「rural areas exhibited roughly double the mortality rate found in urban areas」. doi.org/10.46234/ccdcw2023.198
Zhou J 等 (2024). Injury Mortality of Children and Adolescents Aged 0–19 Years — China, 2010–2021. China CDC Weekly:「drowning and road traffic crashes were the top two causes of child injury deaths, explaing 31.1% and 27.9% of total injury deaths」. doi.org/10.46234/ccdcw2024.057
备注
A 级只对应救生衣这一半。「不离视线」是大家的共识,单算只有 C 级,没有随机试验,以后也不会有。中国的溺水死亡集中在农村,以及 15 到 19 岁的男性。冬天上冰面玩,见第 41 条(野外冰面先量厚度)。
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美国疾病控制与预防中心. 破伤风:「Tetanus bacteria can get into someone's body through broken skin, usually through injuries.」「Tetanus can lead to death (1 in 10 cases in the United States are fatal).」「People who didn't complete the primary series or who aren't up to date with their 10-year tetanus booster shots are also at increased risk.」「Vaccination also helps prevent tetanus in people with wounds, depending on their tetanus vaccination history.」www.cdc.gov/tetanus/about/index.html
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US Preventive Services Task Force (2018). Cervical Cancer: Screening:「For women aged 30 to 65 years, the USPSTF recommends screening every 3 years with cervical cytology alone, every 5 years with high-risk human papillomavirus (hrHPV) testing alone, or every 5 years with hrHPV testing in combination with cytology (cotesting).」www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/uspstf/recommendation/cervical-cancer-screening
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Demicheli V 等 (2018). Vaccines for preventing influenza in the elderly. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD004876.pub4(备注里说的那份 Cochrane 汇总)
Lal H, Cunningham AL, Godeaux O, et al. (2015). Efficacy of an adjuvanted herpes zoster subunit vaccine in older adults. New England Journal of Medicine, 372(22), 2087-2096:「There were solicited or unsolicited reports of grade 3 symptoms in 17.0% of vaccine recipients and 3.2% of placebo recipients. The proportions of participants who had serious adverse events or potential immune-mediated diseases or who died were similar in the two groups.」doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1501184
荷兰把 8.45 万名 65 岁以上老人随机分成两组来比。用的是 13 价肺炎球菌结合疫苗。它对疫苗覆盖型肺炎的效力是 45.6%。可信范围是 95.2% CI 21.8–62.5。疫苗覆盖型就是这支疫苗管得住的那几个菌型。对侵袭性肺炎球菌病的效力是 75.0%(95% CI 41.4–90.8),这是最凶险的那一类感染。对全部原因加在一起的肺炎,它没有效果
来源
Bonten MJ, Huijts SM, Bolkenbaas M, et al. (2015). Polysaccharide conjugate vaccine against pneumococcal pneumonia in adults. New England Journal of Medicine, 372(12), 1114-1125. doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1408544
山东临朐那项随机分组的试验跟踪了 22 年。做过幽门螺杆菌根除治疗的人,得胃癌的风险低约一半。原值 OR 0.48,可信范围 95% CI 0.32 到 0.71。死于胃癌的风险低约 38%(HR 0.62,95% CI 0.39 到 0.99)
来源
Li WQ 等 (2019). Effects of Helicobacter pylori treatment and vitamin and garlic supplementation on gastric cancer incidence and mortality: follow-up of a randomized intervention trial. BMJ. doi.org/10.1136/bmj.l5016
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NHS. Blood in urine:「Blood in your pee must be checked out because it can be a sign of cancer.」「But do not self-diagnose.」「It may not be blood in your pee if: you've recently eaten beetroot … you're taking a new medicine … it's happening during your period」. www.nhs.uk/symptoms/blood-in-urine
NHS. Symptoms of bladder cancer:「You have blood in your pee, even if: you do not have any other symptoms; it's the first time it's happened; there's only a small amount of blood; you're not sure if it's blood」. www.nhs.uk/conditions/bladder-cancer/symptoms
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NHS. Erectile dysfunction (impotence):「Most men occasionally fail to get or keep an erection. This is usually caused by stress, tiredness or drinking too much alcohol, and it's nothing to worry about.」「See a GP or go to a sexual health clinic if: erection problems keep happening」. www.nhs.uk/conditions/erection-problems-erectile-dysfunction
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一项研究把 25 项研究、10676 对异性伴侣合起来一起算。这些伴侣都是一方感染 HIV、一方没感染,学名叫血清不一致。和从来不用的人相比,坚持每次都用安全套的人,HIV 传播风险低约 71%。原值 RR 0.29,可信范围 95% CI 0.20 至 0.43。和用得断断续续的人相比,低约 77%(RR 0.23,95% CI 0.13 至 0.40)。作者的结论是,安全套虽然不完美,但「坚持使用可使 HIV 传播降低 70% 以上」。世界卫生组织说,正确、坚持地用安全套,是防性传播感染(包括 HIV)最有效的办法之一。但长在套子盖不住的地方的溃疡,比如梅毒、生殖器疱疹,安全套挡不住
来源
Giannou FK, Tsiara CG, Nikolopoulos GK, et al. (2016). Condom effectiveness in reducing heterosexual HIV transmission: a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies on HIV serodiscordant couples. Expert Review of Pharmacoeconomics & Outcomes Research, 16(4), 489-499. doi.org/10.1586/14737167.2016.1102635
Fonner VA 等 (2016). Effectiveness and safety of oral HIV preexposure prophylaxis for all populations. AIDS. doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0000000000001145(暴露前预防 PrEP)
WHO (2025). Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) fact sheet:「When used correctly and consistently, condoms offer one of the most effective methods of protection against STIs, including HIV. Although highly effective, condoms do not offer protection for STIs that cause extra-genital ulcers (i.e., syphilis or genital herpes).」www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/sexually-transmitted-infections-(stis)
备注
「不规律使用」和「不用」的差距很小,要每次、全程都用才有效。共用针具是另一条独立的高效传播途径,和性行为无关,注射毒品、纹身、穿孔都算。高风险人群还可以用暴露前预防(PrEP),就是事先吃药挡住感染。把 18 项研究合起来算,凡是超过七成人按时吃药的试验,吃 PrEP 的人感染 HIV 的风险比吃安慰剂的低约七成。原值是风险比 0.30,可信范围 95% CI 0.21 至 0.45。按时吃药的人少的那些试验,则看不到保护效果。PrEP 是处方药,去感染科或者疾控问,别自己网购。已经暴露之后怎么办见第 13 节
Rodger AJ, Cambiano V, Bruun T, et al. (2019). Risk of HIV transmission through condomless sex in serodifferent gay couples with the HIV-positive partner taking suppressive antiretroviral therapy (PARTNER): final results of a multicentre, prospective, observational study. The Lancet, 393(10189), 2428-2438. doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(19)30418-0
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争议与备注
争议:一篇合并了 38 项试验的荟萃分析没有看出这类药能降低总死亡率(RR 0.98,95% CI 0.91 到 1.05)。单看唑来膦酸也不显著(RR 0.88,95% CI 0.68 到 1.13)。作者的结论是,这类药只该为了少骨折而用。Cochrane 那几个数字的可信度也被评为低到中等。还没骨折、骨折风险较低的女性,阿仑膦酸钠对髋部骨折没看出明显作用(RR 0.76,95% CI 0.43 到 1.32)。下颌骨坏死、不典型股骨骨折这类少见的副作用,几年的试验看不全,所以要按时复查、不自己加药停药。有的人适合打针,有的人适合吃药,选哪种由医生定。怎么查出骨质疏松,见第 39 条(骨密度检查)。绝经激素治疗也能减少骨折,但一般只在不适合用别的药时才考虑。为了潮热盗汗用激素,见第 2 节第 43 条(绝经前后潮热去评估激素治疗)。受益人主要是你自己,也包括你的父母。
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